Answer
In the Name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful.
All praise and thanks are due to Allah, and peace and blessings be upon His Messenger.
In this fatwa:
Classical Muslim scholars generally restricted women from the supreme caliphate based largely on their interpretation of the Abu Bakrah’s Hadith, while differing over its scope and application. Women could nevertheless hold various public, judicial, administrative, and advisory roles, and Islamic history records women exercising significant political and military authority.
Responding to your question, Sheikh Ahmad Kutty, a senior lecturer and an Islamic scholar at the Islamic Institute of Toronto, Ontario, Canada, states:
In classical Islamic jurisprudence, women faced restrictions regarding a limited number of supreme political roles, most notably the caliphate, which is the overall head of state. These limitations arose from scholars’ interpretations of a specific Hadith, the social norms of their time, and prevailing views on public authority and military command. Importantly, these restrictions were not based on beliefs that women were sinful, weak, or unfit.
The Hadith most frequently cited in this context is narrated by Abu Bakrah, where the Prophet (peace be upon him) states that a people who appoint a woman as their ruler will not succeed. Most scholars deemed this report authentic but confined its application to the highest level of rulership.
A minority of both classical and modern scholars interpreted it as contextual, linking it to the collapse of the Persian monarchy rather than applying it universally across time and place.
Within the four Sunni schools of thought, the restriction was narrow. While women were generally excluded from the caliphate, many scholars permitted them to serve as advisors, administrators, ministers, teachers, and, in some schools, judges, particularly in non-criminal matters.
In the modern era, many scholars accept women’s roles in non-sovereign leadership positions without viewing this as a religious issue.
Historical examples illustrate this flexibility. The Qur’an commends Bilqīs, the Queen of Sheba, for her wisdom and judgment. Throughout later Muslim history, women like Raziyya Sultana, Shajar al-Durr, and Arwa al-Sulayhi ruled as queens and sultans with scholarly approval, not facing accusations of sin. Although these were not caliphates, they represented significant and influential forms of leadership.
A similar balance exists regarding the issue of warfare. During the time of the Prophet (peace be upon him), women participated in battles voluntarily when necessary. Figures like Nusaybah bint Ka`b at Uḥud and Khawlah bint al-Azwar at Yarmuk fought valiantly and received praise for their actions.
As armies evolved into more professional entities with specialized roles, women’s appearances on the battlefield diminished, but their participation was neither erased nor forbidden.
The evidence is clear: Islam does not deny women strength, courage, or moral worth. The legal limitations that existed were shaped by historical context and specific views on authority, not by a lasting judgment against women’s roles in public life.
Islam honors capable, God-conscious women. When women have led and served with wisdom and justice, they have done so within the mercy of the Shari`ah, not in opposition to it.
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Almighty Allah knows best.